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content/drafts/rust.md

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+---
+title: "rust"
+description: 
+draft: true
+tags: 
+author: TrudeEH
+showToc: true
+---
+
+## Vocabulary
+
+|Command / Word|Action / Meaning|Example|
+|---|---|---|
+|Statement|Performs an action, but does not return a value.|Function definitions, code that ends with `;`.|
+|Expression|Evaluate to a resultant value.|Tests, math.|
+
+## Tools
+
+- Install Rust: `curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf <https://sh.rustup.rs> | sh`
+    - `rustup`
+    - `rustc`
+    - `cargo`
+
+## Hello World!
+
+```rust
+fn main() {
+	println!("Hello world!");
+}
+```
+
+## Variables
+
+```rust
+let x: i32; // A variable can only be used if it has been initialized (contains a value)
+
+let y: i8 = 5; // All variables are constant by default.
+let mut z = 1; // The mut keyword makes the variable mutable. (Explicit type annotation is not necessary, but recommended). 
+
+let (k, f); //Same as "let k; let f;"
+
+let t = { // Initialize a variable as the result of an expression.
+	let squared = y * y;
+	squared
+};
+```
+
+## Data Types
+
+### Integer Types
+
+|Length|Signed|Unsigned|Unsigned Decimal Length|
+|---|---|---|---|
+|8-bit|`i8`|`u8`|`0..=255`|
+|16-bit|`i16`|`u16`|`0..=65535`|
+|32-bit (default)|`i32`|`u32`|`0..=4294967295`|
+|64-bit|`i64`|`u64`|`0..=18446744073709551615`|
+|128-bit|`i128`|`u128`|`0..=340282366920938463463374607431768211455`|
+|arch||||
+|(Size of CPU architecture)|`isize`|`usize`|The size of a memory address.|
+
+```rust
+let v: u16 = 32_u8 as u16; // Convert an u8 type to u16.
+println!("{}", i8::MAX); // Print the largest possible value a data type can hold.
+let a = 10_000; // _ is ignored, and is only used to help with readability.
+let b = 1 + 0xff + 0o77 + 0b1111_1111; // Various numerical bases are supported.
+
+println!("{}", type_of(&v));
+```
+
+### Floating Point Values
+
+|Length|Signed|Unsigned|Unsigned Decimal Length|
+|---|---|---|---|
+|8-bit|`f8`|`u8`|`0..=255`|
+|16-bit|`f16`|`u16`|`0..=65535`|
+|32-bit (default)|`f32`|`u32`|`0..=4294967295`|
+|64-bit|`f64`|`u64`|`0..=18446744073709551615`|
+|128-bit|`f128`|`u128`|`0..=340282366920938463463374607431768211455`|
+
+```rust
+assert!(0.1 + 0.2 == 0.3); // False, floating point numbers are subject to imprecision.
+assert!(0.1_f32 + 0.2 as f32 == 0.3_f32); // True. f32 is less precise. (Note: Remember that _ are optional and are ignored.)
+```
+
+### Boolean Logic
+
+|True|False|
+|---|---|
+|`true`|`false`|
+|`1`|`0`|
+
+```rust
+let _f: bool = false; // 1 byte
+
+let t = false;
+if !t { println!("t became true") }
+```
+
+#### Boolean Operators
+
+- `AND`
+- `OR`
+- `NOT`
+
+#### Bitwise Operations
+
+Each bit is considered a unit.
+
+|AND|`&`|
+|---|---|
+|OR|`|
+|XOR|`^`|
+|LEFT SHIFT|`<<`|
+|RIGHT SHIFT|`>>`|
+
+### Characters
+
+```rust
+let c1: char = 'a'; // 4 bytes
+let c2: char = 'µ'; // Unicode is supported
+```
+
+### Unit Type
+
+```rust
+let _v: () = (); // () is similar to null. It means nothing. Takes up 0 bytes.
+```
+
+## Range
+
+```rust
+-3..2       // -3 to 1. 2 is excluded.
+'a'..='z'   // a to z. z is included.
+```
+
+## Scope
+
+A scope can be created anywhere in the program.
+
+```rust
+// Global Scope
+let y = 2;
+
+{
+	// Local Scope. x is not accessible outside this scope.
+	let x = 1;
+	println!("{} and {}", x, y);
+}
+```
+
+If a variable inside the inner scope has the same name as one outside, the latter is shadowed.
+
+## Functions
+
+```rust
+fn main() { // No output; Implicit "-> ()".
+	sum(3, 2);
+}
+
+fn sum(x: i32, y: i32) -> i32 { // Takes 2 numbers as input, and outputs another.
+	x + y;
+}
+
+fn never_return() -> ! { // "-> !" A function that never returns to the caller. Either panics, or loops forever.
+	panic!() // Error.
+	unimplemented!() // Use if a function is not implemented yet.
+	todo!() // Incomplete.
+}
+```
+
+Type annotation is required in function definitions.
+
+## Ownership
+
+- Each value has an owner.
+- There can only be one owner at a time.
+- When the owner goes out of scope, the value will be dropped.
+
+```rust
+{
+	let s = "example";
+	    |       |
+	  Owner   Value
+}
+// Outside this scope, s is dropped from memory.
+```
+
+## Borrowing
+
+- Access data **without taking ownership** of it.
+- When borrowing, you are taking a **reference** (pointer) to the data, not the value itself.
+
+**Rules**
+
+- At any given time, you can have either **one mutable reference** or **any number** of **immutable references**.
+- References must **always be valid**.
+
+```rust
+fn main() {
+	let s1 = String::from("hello");
+	let len = calculate_length(&s1);
+	
+	println!("The length of '{}' is {}.", s1, len);
+}
+
+fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize {
+	s.len() // s is a pointer to s1
+}
+```
+
+Example mutable reference:
+
+```rust
+fn main() {
+	let mut s = String::from("hello");
+	change(&mut s);
+}
+
+fn change(some_string: &mut String) {
+	some_string.push_str(", world");
+}
+```
+
+Get the address in memory:
+
+```rust
+let x = 5;
+let p: &i32 = &x; // Reference to x, reads 5 by println!.
+
+println!("The memory address of x is {:p}", p); // :p reads the raw reference value.
+```
+
+Dereference:
+
+```rust
+let x = 5;
+let p: &i32 = &x; // Reference to x
+assert_eq!(5, *p) // Go to the value p points to and read it.
+```
+
+The `ref` keyword is an alternate syntax to create a reference:
+
+```rust
+let c = 'T';
+let r1 = &c;
+let ref r2 = c;
+```
+
+## Compound Types
+
+Data types made of other types.
+
+### Strings
+
+A `String` is mutable, and is stored on the *stack* with a pointer to the *heap,* where the value is stored.
+
+```rust
+let s1 = String::from("hello");
+     |                   |
+  Pointer      Array stored on the heap
+  (usize)
+```
+
+#### Copy vs. Move
+
+```rust
+// Copy a value
+let x = 1;
+let y = x;
+
+// Move the pointer value.
+let s1 = String::from("hello");
+let s2 = s1;
+```
+
+Now `s2` also points to the same string as `s1`. This [is not allowed in rust](https://www.notion.so/Rust-14149cf14b4c80ed8f7be5c63490aac2?pvs=21), so `s1` will be dropped. (Passing a string pointer to a function makes the function the new owner of the string).
+
+```rust
+// Copy a string (Deep Copy)
+let s1 = String::from("hello");
+let s2 = s1.clone();
+```
+
+In this example, the value in the heap is copied, so both `s1` and `s2` have their own values, and only own their own instance of the string.
+
+#### `String` Vs. `&str`
+
+|Type|Mutability|Ownership|Efficiency|
+|---|---|---|---|
+|`String`|Mutable; heap|Owns its contents|`-`|
+|`&str` (String Slice)|Immutable; stack|Does not own data|`+`|
+|`"..."` (String Literal)|Immutable; static storage (Stored inside the compiled program)|Does not own data|`+`; Same as `&str`|
+
+```rust
+let s1: String = String::from("hello");
+let s2: &str = "Hello";
+
+// Read String Slice
+let read_string_slice = &s2[0..1]; // "he"
+
+// Move str to heap to make it mutable.
+let s: Box<str> = "hello, world".into(); // .into() converts to the variable type.
+let str_again = &s;
+```
+
+### Tuples
+
+Store different data types.
+
+```rust
+let t: (String, Int) = (String::from("hello"), 14);
+```
+
+Reference: [](https://youtu.be/BpPEoZW5IiY?si=1ri40iKdXR4zwp0J&t=8461)[https://youtu.be/BpPEoZW5IiY?si=WiJX41VB55S7Tx17&t=5607](https://youtu.be/BpPEoZW5IiY?si=WiJX41VB55S7Tx17&t=5607)