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+---
+title: Databases [SQL]
+description: 
+date: 2025-02-17T08:27:35+00:00
+draft: false
+tags:
+  - programming
+  - web
+author: TrudeEH
+showToc: true
+---
+
+## Flat-File Databases
+
+A "table" written into a single file. The most common file type for this purpose is `CSV`.  
+The `CSV` format reads each line as a row, and each comma-separated value as a column.  
+The first row on a `CSV` file is used to describe the data in each column. If a `,` is present on the dataset, surround that entry with `"` to 'escape' it.  
+These files can be read and written to using languages like [[c-language]] and [[python]].
+
+## Relational Databases
+
+Instead of using a single table, a relational database can store data in multiple tables, and then define relationships between them.  
+Each table must have one column with an unique key that identifies each row.  
+![[image94.png]]
+
+### Relationships
+
+#### One-to-one Relationship
+
+In this example, `id` in `shows` corresponds to the `show_id` in the `ratings` table.
+
+#### One-to-many Relationship
+
+`shows` has a one-to-many relationship with `genres`, because a single show entry can have many genders.
+
+#### Many-to-many Relationship
+
+Both the `people` and `writers` table have a field shared with `stars`.
+
+## SQL
+
+`SQL` is a language designed specifically for interfacing with relational databases.  
+To use `SQL`, a database is needed, so, for this example, I will use `sqlite3`.
+
+### Create a Database
+
+```Shell
+sqlite3 name.db # Create a db file and initialize it.
+```
+
+### `sqlite3` Commands
+
+#### Import a `CSV` Table
+
+```SQL
+.mode csv
+.import name.csv table_name
+```
+
+#### General Commands
+
+```SQL
+.schema  -- Print all tables and fields (using the commands used for creation)
+.schema table -- Show the command used for creating a table
+.exit
+```
+
+### Base Syntax
+
+```SQL
+CREATE TABLE table (column type, ...);              -- Create a new table
+SELECT columns FROM table;                          -- Output/Print data
+INSERT INTO table (column, ...) VALUES(value, ...); -- Add data
+UPDATE table SET column = value WHERE condition;    -- Update values
+DELETE FROM table WHERE condition;                  -- Delete data
+```
+
+> In `SQL`, there is **NO WAY** to undo actions. Especially when writing or deleting from the database, do not type `;` unless you know exactly what you are doing!
+
+#### Wildcard
+
+```SQL
+SELECT * FROM table; -- Outputs every column in the table (wildcard selector)
+```
+
+### Functions
+
+#### Math Functions
+
+- `AVG`
+- `COUNT`
+- `DISTINCT`
+- `LOWER`
+- `MAX`
+- `MIN`
+- `UPPER`
+- `LOWER`
+- `…`
+
+    ```SQL
+    SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table; -- Counts the number of rows in a table
+    SELECT DISTINCT column from table; -- Show only the unique values in a column
+    SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column) FROM table; -- Count the unique values in a column
+    ```
+
+#### Logic Functions
+
+- `GROUP BY`
+- `LIKE`
+- `LIMIT`
+- `ORDER BY`
+- `WHERE`
+- `…`
+
+```SQL
+-- Count every instance of a value in a column
+SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table WHERE column = 'string';
+-- LIKE is used to select using formatting. '%' selects every character after)
+SELECT * FROM favorites WHERE prog_language = 'C' AND problem LIKE "Hello, %"
+-- Group all individual rows and display their count
+SELECT prog_language, COUNT(*) FROM favorites GROUP BY prog_language;
+-- Sort values by their count, ascending.
+SELECT prog_language, COUNT(*) FROM favorites GROUP BY prog_language ORDER BY COUNT(*);
+-- Sort values by their count, descending.
+SELECT prog_language, COUNT(*) FROM favorites GROUP BY prog_language ORDER BY COUNT(*) DESC;
+-- Limit the output to a single row (showing the most popular language, in this case)
+SELECT prog_language, COUNT(*) FROM favorites GROUP BY prog_language ORDER BY COUNT(*) DESC LIMIT 1;
+```
+
+#### Operators
+
+- `AND`
+- `OR`
+
+```SQL
+-- Using the AND operator to select two values
+SELECT * FROM table WHERE column1 = 'a' AND column2 = 'b';
+-- AND and OR (' is escaped using '' (' twice))
+SELECT * FROM table WHERE prog_language = 'C' AND (problem = 'Hello, World' OR problem = 'Hello, It''s Me');
+```
+
+#### Aliases
+
+- `AS`
+
+```SQL
+-- The column COUNT(*) will be renamed to 'n'.
+SELECT prog_language, COUNT(*) AS n FROM favorites GROUP BY prog_language ORDER BY n DESC;
+```
+
+#### Conditions
+
+- `IS`
+
+```SQL
+-- Delete all values where timestamp1 is a NULL value.
+DELETE FROM favorites WHERE timestamp1 IS NULL;
+```
+
+### Data Types
+
+- `BLOB`
+- `INTEGER`
+- `NUMERIC`
+- `REAL`
+- `TEXT`
+  
+- `NULL`
+- `NOT NULL`
+- `UNIQUE`
+  
+- `PRIMARY KEY`
+- `FOREIGN KEY`
+
+### Relationships
+
+- `IN`
+- `JOIN`
+
+#### One-to-one
+
+```SQL
+-- 'shows' table
+CREATE TABLE shows (
+	id INTEGER,
+	title TEXT NOT NULL,
+	year NUMERIC,
+	episodes INTEGER,
+	PRIMARY KEY(id)
+);
+-- Table connected with a one-to-one relationship with the 'shows' table
+CREATE TABLE ratings (
+	show_id INTEGER NOT NULL,
+	rating REAL NOT NULL,
+	votes INTEGER NOT NULL,
+	FOREIGN KEY(show_id) REFERENCES shows(id)
+);
+-- Lists 'show_id', but not the actual names of each show.
+SELECT show_id FROM ratings WHERE rating >= 6.0 LIMIT 10;
+-- Executes the nested query first, then shows the entries selected on 'shows'
+SELECT * FROM shows WHERE id IN 
+(SELECT show_id FROM ratings WHERE rating >= 6.0)
+LIMIT 10;
+-- Join both tables
+SELECT title, rating FROM shows JOIN
+ratings ON shows.id = ratings.show_id WHERE rating >= 6.0 
+LIMIT 10;
+```
+
+#### One-to-many
+
+- `ON`
+
+```SQL
+CREATE TABLE genres (
+	show_id INTEGER NOT NULL,
+	genre TEXT NOT NULL,
+	FOREIGN KEY(show_id) REFERENCES shows(id)
+);
+
+-- Search for all genres for a show
+SELECT genre FROM genres WHERE show_id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'TitleOfShow');
+-- Join tables, to show title alongside genres of a show
+SELECT title, genre FROM shows JOIN genres ON shows.id = 
+genres.show_id WHERE id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'TitleOfShow');
+```
+
+#### Many-to-many
+
+![[image95.png]]
+
+```SQL
+-- Select every person who starred in a show
+SELECT name FROM people WHERE id IN
+(SELECT person_id FROM stars WHERE show_id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'Some Name'));
+-- Joined table with the show name and stars
+SELECT title FROM shows JOIN people.name WHERE id IN
+(SELECT person_id FROM stars WHERE show_id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'Some Name'));
+-- Another way to join tables
+SELECT title FROM shows, stars, people
+WHERE shows.id = stars.show_id
+AND people.id = stars.person_id
+AND name = 'Name';
+```
+
+### Indexes
+
+Load an index of the database into RAM to optimize searches.  
+The underneath algorithm is a `B-Tree`, which takes up more space in memory and slightly slows write speed on the database.
+
+```SQL
+CREATE INDEX name ON table (column, ...);
+.timer ON  -- sqlite3 command to show how long operations take to complete
+SELECT * FROM shows WHERE title = 'Name'; -- 0.043s
+CREATE INDEX title_index ON shows(title); -- Index title on shows
+SELECT * FROM shows WHERE title = 'Name'; -- 0.001s
+SELECT name FROM people WHERE id IN
+(SELECT person_id FROM stars WHERE show_id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'Some Name')); -- 0.215s
+CREATE INDEX name_index ON people(name);
+CREATE INDEX person_index ON stars(person_id);
+SELECT name FROM people WHERE id IN
+(SELECT person_id FROM stars WHERE show_id = 
+(SELECT id FROM shows WHERE title = 'Some Name')); -- 0.001s
+```
+
+### Race Conditions
+
+When `SQL` is integrated with languages such as `Python`, for example, or is being accessed by multiple instances, race conditions may arise.  
+For example, consider the following code:  
+
+```Python
+...
+rows = db.execute("SELECT likes FROM posts WHERE id = ?", id);
+likes = rows[0]["likes"]
+db.execute("UPDATE posts SET likes = ? WHERE id = ?", likes + 1, id);
+```
+
+If this code is executed twice at the same time, instead of adding 2 likes to the database, only one will be added, because the program would read the database in the same state, and then add +1 like to that same, previous state.  
+`SQL` provides solutions to this in the form of **transactions**:
+- `BEGIN TRANSACTION`
+- `COMMIT`
+- `ROLLBACK`  
+On `Python`, a solution could be:
+
+```Python
+db.execute("BEGIN TRANSACTION")
+rows = db.execute("SELECT likes FROM posts WHERE id = ?", id);
+likes = rows[0]["likes"]
+db.execute("UPDATE posts SET likes = ? WHERE id = ?", likes + 1, id);
+db.execute("COMMIT")
+```
+
+Where the database would be "locked" while the program ran.
+
+### `SQL` Injection Attacks
+
+If a program asks for user input, and that input is then passed over to the database, the user could write special `SQL` syntax to break the query.  
+For example:  
+If a program takes an email address as input, some user could type: `email@example.com'--`, which marks a comment.  
+If the query was similar to the following:
+
+```Python
+rows = db.execute(f"SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = '{email}' AND password = {psk}")
+```
+
+Replacing values…
+
+```Python
+rows = db.execute(f"SELEC * FROM users WHERE email = 'email@example.com'--' AND password = 'password123'")
+```
+
+Which would result in the user being able to log in without needing a password.  
+The solution to this is to use a library which uses placeholders to insert data in queries.
+
+```Python
+rows = db.execute("SELECT * FROM users WHERE email = ? AND password = ?", email, psk)
+```